Farmers’ knowledge of, and attitudes towards oxpeckers in the Salambala Conservancy, northeastern Namibia

Abstract

Oxpeckers (Buphagus spp.) are obligate avian mutualists that feed on ectoparasites of large mammals, including cattle. Despite their ecological significance, few studies have examined local perceptions of oxpeckers in communal pastoral systems where chemical tick control is prevalent. This study assessed livestock farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and experiences with oxpeckers in the Salambala Conservancy, northeastern Namibia, where Red-billed Oxpeckers and Yellow-billed Oxpeckers co-occur with managed cattle herds. Structured interviews were conducted with 200 randomly selected farmers. The respondent perceived oxpecker impact (positive or negative) on cattle farming was evaluated using scores from six impact responses. Data analyses were conducted to determine the association of predictor variables (participant socio-demographics, knowledge, attitude and perceptions) with perceived oxpecker impact using descriptive, random forest and linear modelling, univariate and multivariable statistics. Awareness of oxpeckers was high (99.5%). Tick control was practiced by 78% of farmers, primarily using synthetic pyrethroids and organophosphates (52%), while some farmers applied traditional practices (20.5%), or did not control at all (21.5%). Positive oxpecker perceptions predominated (79.5%), mainly linked to tick removal, although 29% reported negative impacts such as wound aggravation and blood-feeding. The final multivariable analysis revealed that respondents who applied oxpecker control measures had significantly lower impact scores (more negative oxpecker attitude) compared to those who did not (p <0.0001). Conversely, respondents who wished for increasing oxpecker populations had significantly higher impact scores (more positive oxpecker attitude, p = 0.029). Suggestions to increase oxpecker populations were through conservation programs and captive breeding (29% respondents) and re-introduction of oxpeckers from other areas (19.5%). These findings highlight the importance of integrating ecological knowledge with socio-economic realities to promote coexistence. Strengthening integrated tick management approaches that reduce chemical control and keep ticks to acceptable numbers can enhance community-based conservation initiatives, which are critical for sustaining oxpecker-livestock interactions.