- 1School of Mechanical Engineering Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
- 2Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
- 3James Watt School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
In this work, we illustrate the implementation of physics informed neural networks (PINNs) for solving forward and inverse problems in structural vibration. Physics informed deep learning has lately proven to be a powerful tool for the solution and data-driven discovery of physical systems governed by differential equations. In spite of the popularity of PINNs, their application in structural vibrations is limited. This motivates the extension of the application of PINNs in yet another new domain and leverages from the available knowledge in the form of governing physical laws. On investigating the performance of conventional PINNs in vibrations, it is mostly found that it suffers from a very recently pointed out similar scaling or regularization issue, leading to inaccurate predictions. It is thereby demonstrated that a simple strategy of modifying the loss function helps to combat the situation and enhance the approximation accuracy significantly without adding any extra computational cost. In addition to the above two contributing factors of this work, the implementation of the conventional and modified PINNs is performed in the MATLAB environment owing to its recently developed rich deep learning library. Since all the developments of PINNs till date is Python based, this is expected to diversify the field and reach out to greater scientific audience who are more proficient in MATLAB but are interested to explore the prospect of deep learning in computational science and engineering. As a bonus, complete executable codes of all four representative (both forward and inverse) problems in structural vibrations have been provided along with their line-by-line lucid explanation and well-interpreted results for better understanding.
Introduction
Deep learning (DL) has recently emerged as an incredibly successful tool for solving ordinary differential equations (ODEs) and partial differential equations (PDEs). One of the major reasons for the popularity of DL as an alternative ODE/PDE solver which may be attributed to the exploitation of the recent developments in automatic differentiation (AD) [1] and high-performance computing open-source softwares such as TensorFlow [2], PyTorch [3] and Keras [4]. This led to the development of a simple, general and potent class of forward ODE/PDE solvers and also novel data-driven methods for model inversion and identification, referred to as physics-informed machine learning or more specifically, physics-informed neural networks (PINNs) [5, 6]. Although PINNs have been applied to diverse range of problems in disciplines [7–9], not limited to fluid mechanics, computational biology, optics, geophysics, quantum mechanics, its application in structural vibrations has been observed to be limited and is gaining attention recently [10–15].
The architecture of PINNs can be customized to comply with any symmetries, invariance, or conservation principles originating from the governing physical laws modelled by time-dependant and nonlinear ODEs and PDEs. This feature make PINNs an ideal platform to incorporate this domain of knowledge in the form of soft constraints so that this prior information can act as a regularization mechanism to effectively explore and exploit the space of feasible solutions. Due to the above features and generalized framework of PINNs, they are expected to be as suitable in structural vibration problems as in any other applications of computational physics. Therefore, in this paper, we investigate the performance of conventional PINNs for solving forward and inverse problems in structural vibrations. Then, it is shown that with the modification of the loss function, the scaling or regularization issue which is an inherent drawback of first generation PINNs referred to as “gradient pathology” [16], significant improvement in approximation accuracy can be achieved. One important thing about the above strategy is that it does not require any additional training points to be generated and hence does not contribute to the computational cost. Moreover, since all of the implementation of PINNs is performed in Python, this work explores MATLAB environment for the first time. This is possible due to the new development of the DL library and AD built-in routines in MATLAB. The solution and identification of four representative structural vibration problems have been carried out using PINNs. We also provide complete executable MATLAB codes for all the examples and their line-by-line explanation for easy reproduction. This is expected to serve a large section of engineering community interested in the application of DL in structural mechanics or other fields and are more proficient and comfortable in MATLAB. Special emphasis has also been provided to present a generalized code so that all the recent improvements in PINNs architecture and its variants (otherwise coded in Python) can be easily reproduced using our present implementation.
Formulation of Physics-Informed Neural Networks
One of the major challenges PINNs circumvent is the overdependence of data-centric deep neural networks (DNN) on training data. This is especially useful as sufficient information in the form of data is often not available for physical systems. The basic concept of PINNs is to evaluate hyperparameters of the DNN by making use of the governing physics and encoding this prior information within the architecture in the form of the ODE/PDE. As a result of the soft constraining, it ensures the conservation of the physical laws modelled by the governing equation, initial and boundary conditions and available measurements.
Considering the PDE for the solution
with the following initial
here
Note that the derivatives
Usually,
Despite immense success, the plain vanilla version of PINNs (as discussed above) has been often criticized for not performing well even for simple problems. This is due to the regularization of the composite loss term as defined in Eq. 6. In particular, the individual loss functions
Alternatively, we employ a different approach to address the scaling issue and at the same time requires no extra computational effort. To avoid multiple terms in the composite loss function, the DNN output
Note that the new loss function only involves the PDE residual of the modified output
Next, a flow diagram of the PINNs architecture is presented in Figure 1 for further clarity. This depicts the encoding of the PDE physics in the form of soft constraints within the DNN as illustrated by the physics informed training block in the right side of the diagram. For generality, the flow diagram consists of both training strategies adopted for conventional (vanilla) and modified PINNs. Later, with the help of numerical examples, it is illustrated that the modified PINNs alleviates the scaling issue and leads to better approximation without generating any extra sampling points. As the physics will change from problem to problem depending on the ICs and BCs, the mapping function
Figure 1. A schematic flow diagram of physics informed neural networks (PINNs). In the figure, the abbreviations FC-DNN, PDE, AD, BCs and ICs represent fully connected deep neural network, partial differential equation, automatic differentiation, boundary conditions and initial conditions, respectively. All of the symbols used here to express the mathematical quantities are explained in Formulation of Physics-Informed Neural Networks section.
One useful feature of PINNs is that the same framework can be employed for solving inverse problems with a slight modification of the loss function. The necessary modification is discussed next. If the parameter
This term
Lastly, the parameters
MATLAB Implementation of PINNs
In this section, the implementation of PINNs in MATLAB has been presented following its theoretical formulation discussed in the previous section. A step-wise explanatory approach has been adopted for better understanding of the readers and care has been taken to maintain the code as generalized as possible so that others can easily edit only the necessary portions of the code for their purpose. The complete code has been divided into several sub-parts and each of these are explained in detail separately for the solution of forward and inverse problems.
Input Data Generation
The first part is the input data generation. For the conventional PINNs, points have to be generated 1) in the interior of domain to satisfy the PDE residual, 2) on the boundary of domain to satisfy the boundary conditions, and 3) additional points to satisfy the initial conditions. However, in the modified approach, since the output is adapted so as to satisfy all of the conditions simultaneously, only the interior points are required to be generated. The part of the code generating the interior data points by Latin hypercube sampling has been illustrated in the following snippet.
Initialization of Network Parameters
Next, the fully connected deep neural net architecture is constructed according to the user-defined number of layers “numLayers” and number of neurons per layer “numNeurons.” The trainable parameters (weights and biases) for every layer is initialized and stored in the fields of a structure array called “parameters.” The instance of initializing the weights and biases of the first fully connected layer has been captured by the following snippet. Here, the network weights are initialized by the He initialization [17] implemented by the function “initializeHe.” The He initializer samples the weights out of a normal distribution with zero mean and variance
Neural Network Training
At this stage, the network is to be trained with user-specified value of parameters like, number of epochs, initial learning, decay rate along with several other tuning options. It is worth noting that multiple facilities to allocate hardware resources are available in MATLAB for training the network in an optimal computational cost. This include using CPU, GPU, multi GPU, parallel (local or remote) and cloud computing. The steps performed during the model training within the nested loops of epoch and iteration in mini-batches have been illustrated in the following snippet. To recall, an epoch is the full pass of the training algorithm over the entire training set and an iteration is one step of the gradient descent algorithm towards minimizing the loss function using a mini-batch. As it can be observed from the snippet that three operations are involved during the model training. These are 1) evaluating the model gradients and loss using “dlfeval”2 by calling the function “modelGradients” (which is explained in the next snippet), 2) updating the learning rate with every iteration and epoch and 3) finally updating the network parameters during the backpropagation using adaptive moment estimation (ADAM) [18]. In addition to ADAM, other stochastic gradient descent algorithms like, stochastic gradient descent with momentum (SGDM) and root mean square propagation (RMSProp) can be readily implemented via their built-in MATLAB routines.
Encoding the Physics in the Loss Function
The next snippet presents the function “modelGradients.” This sub-routine is the distinctive feature of PINNs where the physics of the problem is encoded in the loss functions. As mentioned previously, in conventional PINNs, the system response is assumed to be a DNN such that U=modelU(parameters,dlX,dlY,dlT). A difference to the expression of U can be observed in this snippet where the DNN output is modified based on the ICs and BCs. As obvious, this modification will change from problem to problem. In this case, the expression is shown for illustration and is related to Eq. 33 of Example 4 defined in the next section. As the name “dlgradient” suggests, it is used to compute the derivatives via AD. After evaluating the gradients, the loss term enforcing the PDE residual is computed.
As the modified DNN output ensures the satisfaction of ICs and BCs, only the loss term corresponding to PDE residual is necessary. Instead, if conventional PINNs was used, separate loss terms originating from the ICs and BCs would have to be added to the residual loss. Finally, the gradients of the combined loss w.r.t. the network parameters are computed and passed as the function output. These gradients are further used during backpropagation.
As obvious, there will be another loss term involved while solving an inverse problem which minimizes the discrepancy between the model prediction and the measured data. The parameter to be identified is updated as another additional hyperparameter of the DNN along with the network weights and biases. This can be easily implemented by adding the following line: c_update = parameters.(“fc” + numLayers).opt_param; and evaluating the PDE residual as f1 = c_update*(Uxx + Uyy) - Utt in Example 4. In doing so, note that c in line 22 of the snippet will be replaced by c_update.
Fully Connect Operations
The “modelU” function has been illustrated in the next snippet. Here, the fully connected deep neural network (FC-DNN) model is constructed as per the dimensionality of input and network parameters. In particular, the fully connect operations are performed via “fullyconnect.” This function uses the weighted sum to connect all the inputs to each output feature using the “weights,” and adds a “bias.” Sinusoidal activation function has been used here. The sub-routine returns the weighted output features as a dlarray “dlU” having the same underlying data type as the input “dlXYT.”
Once the PINNs model is trained, it can be used to predict on the test dataset. It is worth noting that the deep learning library of MATLAB is rich and consists of a diverse range of built-in functions, providing the users adequate choice and modelling freedom. In the next section, the performance of conventional and modified PINNs is accessed for solving four representative structural vibration problems, involving solution of ODE including multi-DOF systems, and PDE. In doing so, both forward and inverse problems have been addressed. Complete executable MATLAB codes of PINNs implementation for all the example problems can be found in the Supplementary Material.
Numerical Examples
Forced Vibration of an Undamped Spring-Mass System
The forced vibration of the spring-mass system can be expressed by
where u, ü, ωn, fn, ω and t represent displacement, acceleration, natural frequency, forcing amplitude, forcing frequency and time, respectively. The initial conditions are u(t = 0) = 0 and ü (t = 0) = 0, where ü represents the velocity. The analytical solution to the above system is given by
where, r = ω/ωn is the frequency ratio.
As mentioned previously, in the realm of the PINNs framework, solution space (of the ODE, for this case) can be approximated by DNN such that
where,
Figure 2. Results of the forced spring-mass system (A) Forward solution without modifying the neural network output. (B) Forward solution after modifying the neural network output. (C) Inverse solution in the form of convergence of the identified parameter
It can be observed from Figure 2A that the conventional PINNs framework is not capable of capturing the time response variation satisfactorily. As discussed in the previous sections, the reason is related to the regularization of the loss term in Eq. 14 and has been recently addressed in [16]. Although their approach proved to be effective, it entails extra computational effort.
Therefore, an alternative approach has been employed in this work to address the scaling issue which requires no additional computational cost compared to that of conventional PINNs. For avoiding multiple terms in the loss function, a simple scheme for modifying the neural network output has been adopted so that the initial and/or, boundary conditions are satisfied. To automatically satisfy the initial conditions in the above problem, the output of the neural network
Since the modified neural network output is
Following this approach, significant improvement in approximation of the displacement response has been achieved as shown in Figure 2B. Next, the implementation of PINNs has been illustrated for an inverse setting. For doing so, the same problem as defined by Eq. 12 is re-formulated such that the displacement time history is given in the form of measurements and the natural frequency
where,
Forced Vibration of a Damped Spring-Mass System
The second example concerns a forced vibration of a damped spring-mass system and can be expressed by
where u,
As mentioned previously, in the realm of the PINNs framework, solution space (of the ODE, for this case) can be approximated by DNN such that
where,
Figure 3. Results of the damped forced spring-mass system (A) Forward solution without modifying the neural network output. (B) Forward solution after modifying the neural network output. (C) Forward solution over extended time after modifying the neural network output to observe the steady state response (after the transients have died out).
It can be observed from Figure 3A that the conventional PINNs framework is not capable of capturing the time response variation satisfactorily. As discussed in the previous sections, the reason is related to the regularization of the loss term in Eq. 14. Therefore, to automatically satisfy the initial conditions, modified output of the neural network
Following this approach, significant improvement in approximation of the displacement response has been achieved as shown in Figure 3B. The displacement response is presented over extended time in Figure 3C so as to investigate the performance of PINNs on the steady state response after the transients have died out. For generating the result in Figure 3C, 60,000 collocation points have been generated for the time data
Next, the implementation of PINNs has been illustrated for an inverse setting. For doing so, the same problem as defined by Eq. 18 is re-formulated such that the displacement time history is given in the form of measurements and both natural frequency
where,
The results have been presented in the form of convergence of the identified parameters (natural frequency and damping ratio) in Figure 4. The converged value of
Figure 4. Identification results for the damped forced spring-mass system (A) Convergence of the identified natural frequency. (B) Convergence of the identified damping ratio.
Free Vibration of a 2-DOF Discrete System
A 2-DOF lumped mass system as shown in Figure 5 is considered in this example [20]. This example has been included to illustrate the application of PINNs in a multi-output setting for the inference and identification of multi degree of freedom systems. The governing ODE and the initial conditions are as follows,
with initial conditions
where, constants
As opposed to the previous examples, in general, the response associated with each DOF has to be represented by an output node of (multi-output) FC-DNN. Since the above example is a 2-DOF system, the response of the two DOFs are represented by two output nodes of an FC-DNN in the realm of PINNs architecture such that
where, the gradients arising in Eq. 25 can be computed by AD. The following parameter values are adopted,
Figure 6. Results of free vibration of the 2-DOF lumped mass system. (A) Undamped response for IC
It can be observed from Figure 6 that the conventional PINNs framework is capable of capturing the undamped and damped time response variation satisfactorily for two different ICs. The IC
Next, PINNs has been implemented in an inverse setup for identification of system parameters both for the undamped and damped cases. For doing so, the same problem as defined by Eq. 22 is re-formulated such that the displacement time history data is available in the form of measurements and stiffness parameters (
where,
Figure 7. Identification results for the undamped 2-DOF system (A) Convergence of the identified stiffness parameter
Figure 8. Identification results for the damped 2-DOF system (A) Convergence of the identified stiffness parameter
The converged values of
Free Vibration of a Rectangular Membrane
A rectangular membrane with unit dimensions excited by an initial displacement
where,
Using the PINNs framework, solution of the PDE is approximated by a DNN such that
The displacement
Figure 9. Results of free vibration of the rectangular membrane (A) True forward spatial solution, (B) Predicted forward spatial solution by conventional PINNs, (C) Predicted forward spatial solution by modified PINNs, (D) Inverse solution in the form of convergence of the identified parameter
It can be observed from Figure 9B that the conventional PINNs framework is not capable of capturing the time response variation satisfactorily. The reason is once again related to the regularization of the loss term in Eq. 32. The different terms related to the residual, initial and boundary conditions in the loss function are not satisfied simultaneously. Specifically, the fact that the condition
To ensure the satisfaction of residual, initial and boundary conditions and improve upon the approximation accuracy, the neural network output has been modified as,
Since the modified neural network output is
Following this modified PINNs approach, significant improvement in the spatial distribution of the displacement response has been achieved as shown in Figure 9C. Next, the implementation of PINNs has been illustrated in solving another inverse problem. For doing so, the same problem as defined by Eqs 28–31 is re-formulated such that the displacement time history is given in the form of measurements and the wave velocity
where,
Summary and Conclusion
This work presents the MATLAB implementation of PINNs for solving forward and inverse problems in structural vibrations. The contribution of the study lies in the following:
1. It is one of the very few applications of PINNs in structural vibrations till date and thus aims to fill-up the gap. This also makes the work timely in nature.
2. It demonstrates a critical drawback of the first generation PINNs while solving vibration problems, which leads to inaccurate predictions.
3. It mostly addresses the above drawback with the help of a simple modification in the PINNs framework without adding any extra computational cost. This results in significant improvement in the approximation accuracy.
4. The implementation of conventional and modified PINNs is performed in MATLAB. As per the authors’ knowledge, this is the first published PINNs code for structural vibrations carried out in MATLAB, which is expected to benefit a wide scientific audience interested in the application of deep learning in computational science and engineering.
5. Complete executable MATLAB codes of all the examples undertaken have been provided along with their line-by-line explanation so that the interested readers can readily implement these codes.
Four representative problems in structural vibrations, involving ODE and PDE have been solved including multi-DOF systems. Both forward and inverse problems have been addressed while solving each of the problems. The results in three examples involving single DOF systems clearly state that the conventional PINNs is incapable of approximating the response due to a regularization issue. The modified PINNs approach addresses the above issue and captures the solution of the ODE/PDE adequately. For the 2-DOF system, the conventional PINNs performs satisfactorily for the inference and identification formulations. It is recommended to employ
Making the codes public is a humble and timely attempt for expanding the scientific contribution of deep learning in MATLAB, owing to its recently developed rich deep learning library. The research model can be based similar to that of authors adding their Python codes in public repositories like, GitHub. Since the topic is hot, it is expected to quickly populate with the latest developments and improvements, bringing the best to the research community. The authors can envision a huge prospect of their modest research of a recently developed and widely popular method in a new application field and its implementation in a new and more user-friendly software.
Our investigation of the proposed PINNs approach on complex structural dynamic problems, such as beams, plates, and nonlinear oscillators (e.g., cubic stiffness and Van der Pol oscillator), showed opportunities for improvement. To better capture the forward solution and identify unknown parameters in inverse problems, modifications to the proposed approach in this paper are needed. Based on our observation, the need for further systematic investigation has been identified. This aligns with the recent findings in [21]. Future work should focus on automated weight tuning of fully connected neural networks (e.g., [16]), explore physics-informed neural ODEs [11] and symplectic geometry [22].
Data Availability Statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Author Contributions
TC came up with the idea of the work, carried out the analysis and wrote the manuscript. MF, SA, and HK participated in weekly brainstorming sessions, reviewed the results and manuscript. MF secured funding for the work. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
Funding
The authors declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. TC gratefully acknowledges the support of the University of Surrey through the award of a faculty start-up grant. All authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council through the award of a Programme Grant “Digital Twins for Improved Dynamic Design,” grant number EP/R006768.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Supplementary Material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontierspartnerships.org/articles/10.3389/arc.2024.13194/full#supplementary-material
Footnotes
1https://uk.mathworks.com/help/deeplearning/ug/initialize-learnable-parameters-for-custom-training-loop.html#mw_f7c2db63-96b5-4a81-813e-ee621c9658ce
2Functions passed to ‘dlfeval’are allowed to contain calls to ‘dlgradient’, which compute gradients by using automatic differentiation.
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Keywords: PINNs, PDE, MATLAB, automatic differentiation, vibrations
Citation: Chatterjee T, Friswell MI, Adhikari S and Khodaparast HH (2024) MATLAB Implementation of Physics Informed Deep Neural Networks for Forward and Inverse Structural Vibration Problems. Aerosp. Res. Commun. 2:13194. doi: 10.3389/arc.2024.13194
Received: 26 April 2024; Accepted: 25 July 2024;
Published: 13 August 2024.
Copyright © 2024 Chatterjee, Friswell, Adhikari and Khodaparast. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Tanmoy Chatterjee, t.chatterjee@surrey.ac.uk