The one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) is thought to number 35 million in the world. Camels are major sources of milk and meat in many parts of the world including parts of Asia and Africa. Of the total population of Old-World camels, the one-humped camel makes up about 95% (Sazmand et al., 2019). More than 80% of camels worldwide are found in Africa, with 60% of these species found in the Horn of Africa, which includes Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Djibouti, and Eritrea. These countries have a greater percentage of one-humped camels than any other region in the world (Othieno et al., 2022). Ethiopia ranks sixth in Africa for number of camels, with an estimated population of more than 1.42 million (Kena, 2022). Camels are mainly found in the arid and semi-arid lowlands of the Somali, Afar, and Southern Oromia regional states, where nomadic herders make up the majority of the population (Kena, 2022; Keskes et al., 2013). Camels are highly valued in the Somali region and play crucial role in milk and meat production, transportation, and trade (Othieno et al., 2022; Kena, 2022). In the region’s dry and semi-arid rangelands, where true pastoralism is the predominant way of life, these animals are raised for their adaptation to the tough environment. However, infectious camel diseases, such as camelpox, are one of the biggest problems for the pastoralist communities in the Somali and Afar regions (Kena, 2022; Balamurugan et al., 2013).

Camelpox is a highly contagious disease found in Old-World camelids (Dahiya et al., 2016), with rare reports of human infection (Khalafalla and Abdelazim, 2017). It is caused by the camelpox virus (CMLV), which is a member of the Poxviridae family and the Orthopoxvirus genus. The disease is widespread in almost every country where camels are raised (Dahiya et al., 2016).

Camelpox is transmitted through either direct contact with infected animal, or indirect contact with a contaminated environment. Direct transmission occurs between infected and vulnerable animals by contact with skin lesions. Mechanical transfer is also possible by potential vectors such as biting flies and mosquitoes (Wernery and Kaaden, 2002). Afflicted camels may transmit the virus through scab materials and secretions (milk, saliva, ocular, and nasal discharges) shed to the environment including water, which can then infect susceptible animals (Wernery and Kaaden, 2002; Khalafalla and Ali, 2007). The virus can live for up to 4 months in dried scabs. Camelpox is a highly infectious and exceedingly transmissible skin disease in camels that can cause moderate skin lesions or severe systemic illnesses depending on the virus strain and the animal’s immune condition (Dahiya et al., 2016; Wernery and Kaaden, 2002). Camelpox signs range from acute to mild illness and may include fever, lymph node enlargement, face edema, lachrymation, pendulous lips, and pox lesions. Papules and vesicles first occur on the lips and nose, then spread to the entire head, neck, hindquarters, abdomen, legs, and groin (Khalafalla et al., 2015). The prevalence of camelpox is socioeconomically relevant since it results in large losses in terms of morbidity and mortality, abortion, weight loss, and milk output reductions. Camelpox epidemics generate substantial economic damage and necessitate quarantine and containment efforts to prevent the disease from spreading (Aregawi et al., 2018; Tefera and Gebreah, 2001).

To estimate the disease burden and develop effective control measures, prevalence studies and assessing risk factors are important. Some studies have been conducted to determine how common camelpox is in Ethiopia (Aregawi et al., 2018; Megersa, 2010; Ayelet et al., 2013). These studies used a range of approaches, such as molecular methods, clinical observations, and serological testing. For example, using clinical examination, Megersa (Megersa, 2010) stated that in Borana zone (the southernmost zone of Oromia region), the prevalence of camelpox was 0% during the dry season, 0.3% during the major wet season, and 14.2% during the minor wet season. Similarly, Aregawi (Aregawi et al., 2018) also reported seroprevalence of camelpox at 21.6% and 16.7% in Amibara and Awash Fentale of Afar region, North Eastern Ethiopia, respectively. Moreover, Ayelet et al. (Ayelet et al., 2013) reported the first camelpox virus isolation and molecular detection in Ethiopia.

However, there is a dearth of information on camelpox in the Jarar zone of the Somali region in eastern Ethiopia, even if camelpox is acknowledged as an economically significant viral disease affecting camels in Ethiopia. Thus, this study aims to estimate the seroprevalence of camelpox infection and identify associated risk factors in the study area.

A seroepidemiological study of camelpox was carried out in selected areas of Jarar zone in Somali Region of Ethiopia using sandwich ELISA test. This study revealed that overall the seroprevalence of camelpox in the study area was 16%. The current finding is consistent with Aregawi et al. (2018), who reported 19.3% seroprevalence of camelpox in the Afar region, Ethiopia.

However, Ayelet et al. (2013) and Housawi (2007) observed a lower prevalence of 4.50% in Afar and 9.14% in Saudi Arabia, respectively. On the other hand, larger prevalence values of neutralizing antibodies have been recorded from similarly unvaccinated camel populations following disease outbreaks in 72.5% of camels in Sudan (Khalafalla et al., 1998) and 100% of clinical cases and in-contact seemingly healthy camels in Egypt (Mahmoud et al., 2012). These disparities could be attributed to differences in agro-geographical location, sample size (Ayelet et al., 2013), and animal herding practices.

The findings indicated that camelpox occurrences and camelpox antibody seropositivity were significantly linked with age, sex, and season. Accordingly, seroprevalence in young was considerably (p < 0.05) greater than in adult camels. The declining maternal antibodies make young camels more susceptible to camelpox infection than adults (Mahmoud et al., 2012; Allan et al., 2023). In general, young animals under the age of 4 years in a herd suffer from a more severe and generalized form of the disease due to the loss of acquired maternal immunity after 5–8 months (Mahmoud et al., 2012; Joseph et al., 2021).

On the other hand, the present findings contrast with an earlier study carried out in the Afar region, in that adult age groups (>4 years) had a considerably greater seroprevalence of camelpox than did younger age groups (>6 months and <4 years) (Narnaware et al., 2021; Zhugunissov et al., 2021). This disparity might be attributed to the distribution of the two age groups proportions during sampling (Mahmoud et al., 2012).

According to the current study, camelpox antibodies were more common in females (21%). This difference was statistically significant (p < 0.05). These might be attributed to hormonal underpinnings because increased prolactin and progesterone levels have been shown to impair immunological responses, which may impact the body’s capacity to prevent camelpox infections and increase the susceptibility of females to infection (Khalafalla et al., 2021). Stress associated with pregnancy and nursing may also make female camels more vulnerable to the camelpox virus.

Likewise, this study indicated that there is a seasonal variation in the prevalence of camelpox, with the disease being more common in the wet season (p < 0.05) at 27.0% as opposed to the dry season (1.0%). The report of a previous study by Aregawi et al. (2018) in Ethiopia’s Afar pastoral region is similar to our observation. They found that camelpox is endemic to the area and that it frequently appears during the minor and major rainy seasons. Comparably, research has shown that camelpox outbreaks are more common during the rainy season, when the disease manifests in a more severe form. Wet seasons may offer more conducive environment for virus reproduction or enhance the survival of viral particles outside the host, which could result in increased seropositivity rates during such times. This difference would also be related to arthropods like biting flies and mosquitoes which are vectors of camelpox transmission. The density of these vectors varies with seasons. As a result, increasing vector activity during the rainy seasons may raise the virus’s rate of transmission and raise the seropositivity of camelpox (Zhugunissov et al., 2021). The higher seropositivity of camelpox during the rainy season than the dry is supported by works of many researchers (Wernery and Kaaden, 2002; Khalafalla and Ali, 2007; Megersa, 2010).

Seropositivity was not significantly influenced by herd size and study districts. This is supported by Aregawi et al. (2018). These findings can be related to the infectious nature of the camelpox virus, which transmits within the same herd or across herds when camels congregate for grazing and watering. Furthermore, the pastoral production system itself, which is characterized by camel herders’ migratory nature combined with the sharing of communal grazing and watering points, as well as the proximity of the two districts, contributes to the observed lack of statistically significant variations between districts. Herds cannot be considered separate units in a pastoral production system; instead, they are part of a wider animal production ecology (Aregawi et al., 2018).

The current researchers did not perform molecular characterizations and detect active clinical cases of the camelpox due to a lack of manpower and funds.

The results of the current study revealed that the prevalence of camelpox in Jarar zone of Ethiopia’s Somali Region was 16%. Sex, age, and season were the only predictor factors for the seroprevalence of the camelpox in the study area. This highlights necessity for efficient disease management and control strategies to mitigate the financial loss due to camelpox. Thus, the genetic diversity of the camelpox viruses circulating in the area needs to be investigated through further research.